Proanthocyanidins are major constituents of this sap [ 32 ] and studies have shown that Sangre de Grado limits the transcription of a wide range of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators and accelerates the healing of stomach ulcers [ 33 , 34 ] and promotes apoptosis in cancer cells [ 35 ].

Other extreme antioxidant rich herbal medicines are Triphala, an Indian Ayurvedic herbal formulation, shown to have anti-inflammatory activity [ 36 ], antibacterial and wound healing properties [ 37 , 38 ] and cancer chemopreventive potential [ 39 ].

Arjuna, another Auyrvedic formula, has been shown to have health beneficial activities [ 40 , 41 ] while Goshuyu-tou, a traditional Chinese kampo medicine has been shown to significantly reduce the extracellular concentration of NO in the LPS-stimulated Raw With their high content of phytochemicals such as flavonoids, tannins, stilbenoids, phenolic acids and lignans [ 43 — 45 ] berries and berry products are potentially excellent antioxidant sources.

The phytochemical content of berries varies with geographical growing condition, and between cultivars [ 46 , 47 ] explaining the variations found in our study. During the processing of berries to jams, total phenol content is reduced [ 48 ] resulting in lower antioxidant values in processed berry products than in fresh berries.

Nuts are a rich source of many important nutrients and some are also antioxidant-rich. The observed increase in antioxidant content in nuts with pellicle compared to nuts without pellicle is in good agreement with earlier studies showing the flavonoids of many nuts are found in the nut pellicle [ 49 ].

After water, tea and coffee are the two most consumed beverages in the world, although consumption patterns vary between countries. Because of the fairly high content of antioxidants and the frequent use, coffee and tea are important antioxidant sources in many diets. Several different compounds contribute to coffee's antioxidant content, e.

Many of these are efficiently absorbed, and plasma antioxidants increase after coffee intake [ 50 , 53 ]. In green tea, the major flavonoids present are the monomer catechins, epigallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, epicatechin gallate and epicatechin.

In black tea the polymerized catechins theaflavin and thearubigen predominate in addition to quercetin and flavonols [ 54 , 55 ]. Interestingly, the antioxidant content in human breast milk is comparable to that in pomegranate juice, strawberries and coffee and on average higher than the antioxidant content observed in the commercially available infant formulas analyzed in our study.

Breakfast cereals are also potential important sources of antioxidants; some of these products have antioxidant contents comparable to berries, which are fairly high, compared to other grain products and may be due to antioxidants added to the products in fortification process.

Chocolate have for several years been studied for its possible beneficial health effects [ 56 ]. Our results show a high correlation between the cocoa content and the antioxidant content, which is in agreement with earlier studies [ 30 , 57 ].

As demonstrated in the present study, the variation in the antioxidant values of otherwise comparable products is large. Like the content of any food component, antioxidant values will differ for a wide array of reasons, such as growing conditions, seasonal changes and genetically different cultivars [ 46 , 58 ], storage conditions [ 59 — 61 ] and differences in manufacturing procedures and processing [ 62 — 64 ].

Differences in unprocessed and processed plant food samples are also seen in our study where processed berry products like jam and syrup have approximately half the antioxidant capacity of fresh berries.

On the other hand, processing may also enhance a foods potential as a good antioxidant source by increasing the amount of antioxidants released from the food matrix which otherwise would be less or not at all available for absorption [ 65 ].

Processing of tomato is one such example where lycopene from heat-processed tomato sauce is more bioavailable than unprocessed tomato [ 66 ]. The large variations in antioxidant capacity observed in the present study emphasize the importance of using a comprehensive antioxidant database combined with a detailed system for food registration in clinical and epidemiological studies.

Initial studies have been carried out to examine the association between intake of antioxidant rich foods and their health effects [ 67 , 70 ]. Some of these studies describe a beneficial effect on oxidative stress related chronic diseases, e. from intake of nuts [ 49 , 69 ], pomegranates [ 71 — 73 ], tomatoes [ 6 ], coffee [ 74 ], tea [ 54 , 75 , 76 ], red wine [ 77 — 79 ] and cocoa [ 56 ].

The highly reactive and bioactive phytochemical antioxidants are postulated to in part explain the protective effect of plant foods. An optimal mixture of different antioxidants with complementary mechanisms of action and different redox potentials is postulated to work in synergistic interactions.

Still, it is not likely that all antioxidant-rich foods are good sources and that all antioxidants provided in the diet are bioactive. Bioavailability differs greatly from one phytochemical to another [ 26 , 27 , 80 ], so the most antioxidant rich foods in our diet are not necessarily those leading to the highest concentrations of active metabolites in target tissues.

The antioxidants obtained from foods include many different molecular compounds and families with different chemical and biological properties that may affect absorption, transport and excretion, cellular uptake and metabolism, and eventually their effects on oxidative stress in various cellular compartments [ 24 ].

Biochemically active phytochemicals found in plant-based foods also have many powerful biological properties which are not necessarily correlated with their antioxidant capacity, including acting as inducers of antioxidant defense mechanisms in vivo or as gene expression modulators.

Thus a food low in antioxidant content may have beneficial health effects due to other food components or phytochemicals executing bioactivity through other mechanisms. The Antioxidant Food Table is a valuable research contribution, expanding the research evidence base for plant-based nutritional research and may be utilized in epidemiological studies where reported food intakes can be assigned antioxidant values.

It can also be used to test antioxidant effects and synergy in experimental animal and cell studies or in human clinical trials. The ultimate goal of this research is to combine these strategies in order to understand the role of dietary phytochemical antioxidants in the prevention of cancer, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and other chronic diseases related to oxidative stress.

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Copyright © by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC. Bookshelf ID: NBK PMID: PubReader Print View Cite this Page Paur I, Carlsen MH, Halvorsen BL, et al. Antioxidants in Herbs and Spices: Roles in Oxidative Stress and Redox Signaling. In: Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Chapter 2. In this Page.

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Its role in regulating glucose in the body has been suggested in many small randomized control trials, though the results have not been significant enough to prove conclusive. When mice ate this extract, it greatly improved their cognitive ability. Learn more about the health benefits of cinnamon here.

When people consume chili powder, the spice triggers beneficial protein changes in the body that are conducive to weight loss. But researchers do not fully understand the mechanism of how this works.

In another study , researchers observed that regular consumption of chili also significantly reduced abdominal adipose tissue fat levels and reduced appetite and energy intake. Thanks to its anti-inflammatory properties, chili powder could also be effective for supporting arthritis treatments, as well as for alleviating muscle and joint inflammation.

Parsley is an herb that originated from the Mediterranean region. Many have used it through the years for both culinary flavoring and therapeutic treatment for a range of health conditions, including high blood pressure and allergies. This herb is full of antioxidants , carotenoids, and other beneficial vitamins that support a healthy body and immune system.

Among these is vitamin K, an essential nutrient for bone health. Learn more about the health benefits of parsley here. Another herb that is prevalent in the Mediterranean diet is oregano, which many use not only as a flavor enhancer for food but as an aromatic oil and supplement.

Oregano as a standalone herb cannot singlehandedly produce these results. But people may use it for its antioxidative properties that are beneficial for many health conditions.

Learn more about the health benefits of oregano here. Cardamom is yet another spice that provides a wide range of potential health benefits. Coming from the seeds of plants that belong to the ginger family, people often consume cardamom in teas, such as chai tea, as well as some coffee , desserts, and even savory dishes.

Some of the conditions that research shows cardamom may treat are:. In particular, the volatile oils present in cardamom seeds are analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and antispasmodic.

Animal studies found cardamom may also help with obesity or high cholesterol. When researchers implemented cardamom supplementation on obese rats, the spice lowered their total cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Learn more about the health benefits of cardamom here. Herbs and spices make flavorful additions to meals, but are also powerhouses for essential nutrients that greatly benefit the body.

People may experience some benefits or health improvements from incorporating herbs and spices into their diet, but should not depend upon them solely for full treatment of conditions.

Those with serious health conditions should talk with a doctor to discuss the best course of treatment for them. Turmeric is a spice that contains curcumin, which seems to have anti-inflammatory and immune-boosting properties. Learn about 10 benefits of turmeric….

Drinking ginger tea may have positive effects for a person's health. Learn more about the potential benefits and side effects of drinking ginger tea….

Basil is a popular herb, and some people use it for medicinal purposes. Here, learn about the possible health benefits and how to add basil to the…. What are micronutrients? Read on to learn more about these essential vitamins and minerals, the role they play in supporting health, as well as…. My podcast changed me Can 'biological race' explain disparities in health?

Clove also inhibits prostaglandin biosynthesis and the release of leukotrienes in the inflammatory pathway through its potent COX-1 and 2 inhibitory activity [ 61 ].

Clove oil has antibacterial activity thanks to its β-caryophyllene and eugenol content. Bacteria with which it is effective include campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli , salmonella enteritica, Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus.

Antifungal effects have also been reported on Candida albicans , trichophyton rubrum, microsporum canis, tricophyton mentagrophytes, fusarium monoliforme, microsporum gypseum, fusarium oxysporum, epidermophyton floccosum, mucor species, microsporum gypseum and aspergillus [ 58 , 62 ].

Oregano grows largely in temperate regions and is rare in Africa. Different studies have concluded that the use of oregano improves stability and reduces lipid oxidation throughout the shelf life of foods meat, meat products, milk, fish or fish products.

This property makes thyme an enriched functional food source [ 63 ]. Thyme includes monoterpene polyphenols such as thymol and p-cymene, with the most particular component being carvacrol, and other monoterpenes such as -pinene, 1,8-cineol, camphor, linalool and borneol [ 9 , 21 , 63 ].

Flavonoid content is quite high [ 21 ]. The common feature of the thyme types widely used in the industry is that they contain essential oil and the main components of these essential oils are thymol and carvacrol.

These substances are phenolic compounds that give thyme its unique scent and give it antioxidant properties [ 27 ].

Thyme is a nutritional antioxidant that stands out with its antidiabetic, antibacterial and anticarcinogenic effects. The basis of its antimicrobial activity is the free hydroxyl group, its hydrophobicity and the presence of a phenol moiety [ 64 ].

Similarly, the presence of phenol is responsible for its antispasmodic and antitussive effects. There are also both animal studies and in vitro studies on its anthelmintic effects [ 65 ]. In in vitro studies, the effect of thyme oil on antibiotic-resistant enterococcus and escherichia strains, especially staphylococcus and pseudomonas strains has been presented.

It is highly effective on biofilms, and its antibacterial effects are associated with direct penetration into the cell wall and matrix [ 66 ]. In the Figure 2 , natural spices with potent antioxidant features and which are most commonly used are listed.

Natural spices with potent antioxidant features and which are most commonly used. It is among the most valuable spices in the world [ 14 ].

It is one of the most important phytochemical carotenoids [ 14 , 21 ]. This molecule has the effect of reducing tumor growth [ 14 ]. It has potent antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects.

It has been observed that crocetin significantly reduces insulin resistance, corrects hyperinsulinemia, dyslipidemia and hypertension in rats that are given fructose.

After chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats, it has been determined that the extracts of crocin and crocetin increase spatial cognitive abilities. Its use in traditional medicine, especially in dermatological diseases, in eastern societies, especially in China and India, is based on approximately 4, years.

This product, which is accepted as a combination of plants that have a place in religious rituals in ancient times, is collected in its roots and stems and then reproduces by giving seeds again [ 20 ].

Originally, this spice, which comes from the ginger family, has been recognized to have a healing effect on many disease progression, although some remained only in the clinical trial phase. However, the transition from traditional medicine to modern plug was not difficult.

This spice with flowers and broad leaves grows in tropical climates. Its color and taste are used by putting it in pasta, rice, vegetables, meat dishes and salads. Curcumin has been proven to be sensitive to light, so it is recommended that biological samples containing curcumin should be protected from light [ 67 ].

Studies are underway to increase its bioavailability after oral ingestion, as its absorption from the gastrointestinal tract is poor and most of it is excreted in the feces [ 68 ].

Its antioxidant properties are due to the methoxy, phenoxy and carbon—carbon double bonds in its structure. Even though its metabolic rate and elimination are high, its bioavailability is limited. However, in the development phase of many diseases, cytokines, it plays an important role by regulating growth factors, kinases, transcription factors and enzymes.

Its molecular activity on signal transduction and redox reactions has always been a curiosity. High-level methoxylation and low-level hydrogenation of curcumin content increase free radical scavenging ability [ 68 ].

Curcumin is one of the spices with the highest antioxidant and anti-inflammatory component [ 2 , 12 ]. The antioxidant effect of curcumin is based on reducing TNFα and IL-1 expression and establishing balance with ROS. Curcumin, other than being beneficial for wound healing, also has an antibacterial effect by controlling the inflammatory response.

Curcumin induces apoptosis of inflammatory cells and thus shortens the inflammatory phase. It accelerates healing by increasing collagen synthesis and fibroblast migration in the early phase of wound healing.

However, forms suitable for topical use are not yet available. In vivo and in vitro studies on this subject continue. Therefore, it is much more effective to add oral forms of curcumin to the diet for wound healing at this stage [ 69 ].

There are studies showing that curcumin reduces the proliferation and invasion of tumor cells [ 70 ]. It has been examined that curcumin is a biologically active agent that increases cancerous cell apoptosis in head—neck, pancreatic and colorectal cancer patients [ 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ].

Curcumin is also a good source of ω-3 fatty acids and α-linolenic acid. It prevents atherosclerosis by reducing the level of LDL in the blood, preventing lipoperoxidation, and reducing cholesterol levels [ 74 ].

It is mostly because of this effect that it is used as a common cooking spice in developed countries where the consumption of saturated fatty acids is greatly increased. Curcumin supplementation is recommended for foods during both prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in which atherosclerosis plays a major role.

Curcuminoids reduced blood sugar, partly due to their effect of reducing free fatty acids, and in addition, in studies on rodent models, they prevent the reduction in antioxidant capacity caused by diabetes.

As a result, it has been reported to have an antidiabetic effect in patients with insulin-resistant type-II diabetes and in in-vivo studies [ 75 , 76 ].

Cumin Cuminum cyminum is a well-known culinary spice that is often used in mealtimes. Its oblong-shaped seeds have a strong aromatic scent and a warm bitter flavor. It is widely grown in Central Asia, Pakistan, India, Iran and China.

It is traditionally used as an antiseptic agent. It is also widely used in digestive disorders such as dyspepsia and diarrhea [ 72 ]. Its bioactive components are terpenes, phenols and flavonoids. Thanks to these components, it has been proven that it has free radical scavenging and metal chelating properties [ 77 ].

It is a spice with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties [ 12 ]. Animal studies are available showing the hypolipidemic and antidiabetic effects of cumin [ 78 ]. Experimental studies have been conducted to support the effect of cumin on renal ischemia—reperfusion injury [ 79 , 80 ].

It also has antibacterial and potent antimicrobial activity [ 66 , 77 ]. Cumin seeds also have immunostimulating, gastric protective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and neuroprotective activities [ 81 ]. The most specific feature of cinnamon, which is an evergreen tree, is its aromatic scent.

Cinnamon, which is also widely traded, is frequently consumed in Iran in the form of traditional tea. It is used to prevent lipid oxidation of bakery products such as cakes, so that it prevents the taste of foods [ 82 ].

It is a spice with a pronounced antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect [ 12 ]. It has been observed that consuming it especially in tea form is beneficial in the treatment of diseases related to oxidative stress.

It has also been presented to have a sedative effect in many human studies [ 83 ]. Cinnamon, acting like insulin, increases insulin receptor kinase activity and stimulates glycogen synthase activity.

Thus, it exerts antidiabetic effect [ 82 , 84 ]. Spices such as cinnamon have started to be included in prescriptions as an additional treatment, due to the toxic side effects of diabetes medications and balance problems due to long-term use.

In these studies, which accelerated the development of multiple antibiotic resistances, antibacterial effects on factors such as bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus , Bacillus cereus , Escherichia coli , salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Listeria monocytogenes , and fungal effects such as aspergillus monocytogenes, aspergillus monocytogenes are also known [ 85 ].

In addition, NF-κB, which is known to be effective in cancer development acts an anticancer by inhibiting the production of IL-1β and TNF-α. Cinnamon is beneficial in lowering triglycerides and LDL cholesterol by affecting the blood lipid profile through the poliphenols in its structure [ 86 ].

The effect of polyphenols here is achieved by inhibiting hepatic lipid peroxidation. In this way, by cleaning hydroxy and fatty acid radicals and chelates, providing the metabolic balance of fat and carbohydrates, cinnamon has turned into a functional nutrition.

With a slightly bitter but strong aroma, this root can be used in powder or ground form. It can be consumed in brine, drying, canned or fresh [ 20 ]. Among these are terpenes, polysaccharides, lipids, but especially gingerol, physiological effects are the most intense [ 20 , 87 ]. The proportion of gingerol is higher in fresh ginger than the dried form, so consuming fresh is more important for its antioxidant effect [ 20 ].

Studies mention the effects of ginger on cardioprotective, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, antinausea and antiobesity. Its anti-inflammatory effects have been demonstrated in the treatment of osteomyelitis, arthritis and rheumatism [ 89 ].

Ginger, which has increased glutathione levels and suppress lipid peroxidation during its anti-inflammatory effects, is widely used as a food flavor in developed countries for colds, migraine attacks and gastrointestinal disorders. Its antimicrobial effects are related to its lipophilic property, making the fungal walls and cytoplasmic membrane permeable.

Antibacterial effects on species such as Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , Streptococcus pneumoniae and haemophilus have been proved on various animal and human studies. The most stable metabolite, 6-gingerol derivative, has been observed to have an antinause effect by blocking 5-hydroxy tryptophan and serotonin-mediated vagal afferent neurons in patients used after chemotherapy, nephrectomy and cesarean operations [ 90 , 91 ].

It is obtained from the ripe fruits of Piper nigrum L [ 27 ]. Black pepper has a very common pharmaceutical use in the world [ 14 ]. It is cultivated in tropical regions, especially in India, Malaysia, Asia and Indonesia [ 12 , 27 ].

It is among the best-selling spices on the market in some countries like India [ 14 , 92 ]. Black pepper contains five phenolic acids piperettine, piperanine, piperylin A, piperolein B and pipericine amide with antioxidant effects [ 12 , 13 , 27 ]. Additionally, it contains alkamides, piptigrine, wisanine and dipiperamide [ 13 ].

These phenolic components have a damaging effect by preventing the growth of the bacterial membrane, and their antimicrobial activity occurs through this mechanism [ 12 ]. These compounds are non-greasy, odorless, tasteless and exhibit stronger antioxidant activity than α-tocopherol [ 27 ].

The composition in the form of essential oil has antimicrobial activity [ 12 ]. The quality of black pepper varies depending on piperine causing bitterness and the essential oils responsible for its aroma [ 12 , 27 ].

Piperine is a green crystalline clear substance that was first isolated in This alkaloid is a compound that gives the pepper its bitterness. The nature of piperine, which is its active basic component, is known in detail, and its effectiveness in alternative medicine has been clearly proven [ 13 , 14 , 21 ].

Its content, piperine, is a bioactive component with known beneficial effects on human health [ 13 , 14 ]. Piperine is absorbed by passive diffusion in the gastrointestinal tract and has a short clearance time [ 13 ].

In a study of industrial microwaving of black pepper, it was determined that no change was observed in the antioxidant properties of this herb [ 50 ]. It has antioxidant, antimicrobial and antipyretic properties [ 27 ]. Antidepressant, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticarcinogenic, antithyroid activities are some of the important pharmacological effects of black pepper [ 13 , 14 , 93 ].

Its anti-inflammatory effect has been detected on rats in many experimental studies. Black pepper accelerates the digestion process, increases digestive enzymes, gastric acid and bile acid secretion, and shortens the food transit time.

Piperine significantly reduces cell death, brain edema, and post-reperfusion proinflammatory cytokines in rats. It has decreased hippocampal cell death after ethylcholine aziridinium ion administration in rats [ 21 ]. Piperine has reduced arthritis pain in animal models. Piperine supplementation reduces muscle damage when given before and after exercise.

Piperine reduces histamine release and eosinophil infiltration in animal models. However, it suppresses allergic airway inflammation and airway hypersensitivity.

Piperine increases energy expenditure in animal experiments, activates the sympathetic nervous system, causes thermogenesis, increases catecholamine levels, and activates adrenal sympathetic nerves [ 13 ].

In a study, it was examined that lipid peroxidation was delayed in pork meat with the addition of black pepper [ 13 , 94 ]. Piperine prevented lipid accumulation in mouse macrophages.

Alternatively, it has been determined to transform into foamy cells in animal studies, which can reduce fat accumulation in the arterial wall [ 13 ].

Capsaicin is an alkaloid. Among its recently discovered ingredients are capsiate and dihydrocapsiate [ 13 ]. The beneficial effects of red pepper have been documented long before. In vitro and experimental studies of red pepper and capsaicin have proved potential antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of it against oxidative stress in various tissues and organs [ 13 ].

This spice type has the ability to induce apoptosis in major type cancers. It has been presented that capsaicin treatment in gastic cancer cells MGC and cervical cancer cells HeLa prevented the G1 phase in cell cycle analysis.

In another study conducted in vitro, it has been determined that it has a protective effect on rat hippocampal neurons, reduces hippocampal death after global ischemia, decreases the size of cerebral infarction after bilateral arterial occlusion in mice, and decreases the infraction volume in neonatal rats ligated in unilateral carotid arteries after hypoxia [ 21 ].

However, capsaicin regulates energy metabolism and has beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system, with its antioxidant and antiplatelet effects. In a clinical study conducted on humans, it was determined that 5 grams of red pepper Capsicum frutescens lowered blood glucose levels and maintained healthy insulin levels.

In the short-term use of red pepper, it has been observed that body mass index contributes to management, decreases energy and fat intake, increases body heat production thermogenesis , increases body metabolic rate, decreases the conversion of fat cells to mature cells adipogenesis and increases fat oxidation.

Capsaicin has been detected to be gastroprotective in patients with peptic ulcer disease. Capsaicin reduces acid secretion, induces alkaline mucous stimulation particularly by affecting gastric mucosal blood flow and contributes to ulcer healing [ 13 ].

In a study comparing antioxidant effects, it was stated that the strongest antioxidant effect was in rosemary and curcumin, followed by herbs such as cinnamon, saffron, sage, and thyme [ 2 , 27 , 46 ]. Shahidi et al. asserted that the antioxidant activities of clove, sage, thyme and ginger in meat oil were concentration-dependent [ 95 ].

They stated that among these substances, the most effective was clove, and the least effective spices were ginger and thyme [ 95 ]. Pizzale et al. found that, on average, the antioxidant activity of sage species Salvia officinalis and fruticosa was higher than thyme species Origanum onites and indercedens in their study [ 96 ].

Another study proved that chloroform extract of dried musk sage Salvia sclarea has higher antioxidant activity than acetone extract, and both extracts have higher total antioxidant activities than α-tocopherol [ 27 ]. Nakatani et al. determined that black pepper is more effective than synthetic antioxidants such as BHT and BHA [ 97 ].

In another study, the antioxidant properties of curcuminoids were investigated, and it was determined that the antioxidant capacity of these extracts was equivalent to ascorbic acid [ 98 ].

When evaluated in terms of the density of total phenolic compounds, it has been observed that rosemary and thyme have higher phenolic content than other herbs. Also, it was presented that fresh plants have more intense phenolic content than dried plants [ 9 ]. Correspondingly, it is thought that the most potent antioxidants are fresh rosemary and curcumin, and it may be suggested to increase the consumption of these products.

Since each spice contains a wide range of phenols, many of them can provide synergistic effects with each other. The formulations of different herbs and spices were tested in vivo and in vitro, and their antimicrobial effects were compared [ 12 ].

It is predicted that the antioxidant effect increases significantly when thyme essential oil and vitamin E are mixed in half so that there is a synergistic effect between thyme essential oil and vitamin E [ 27 ].

It has been indicated that meats are effectively protected against Listeria monocytogenes with the combined use of curcumin and thyme [ 12 ]. In an experimental animal study, it was observed that when capsaicin 0.

Since piperine increases the absorption of various drug and food sources, it increases their bioavailability when used with other antioxidants. It increases the absorption of compounds such as coenzyme-Q, curcumin and polyphenol.

Piperine shows its effect by decreasing the intestinal and hepatic metabolism of curcumin. In some studies, it has been presented that piperine increases the bioavailability of resveratrol in vivo by inhibiting its metabolism.

In this way, it ensures that additional resveratrol doses are not required [ 13 ]. Therefore, the combined use of herbs and spices with appropriate formulations can be recommended. Herbs and spices used in cooking, increasing the nutritional value of foods and extending the storage time are highly interesting compounds with antioxidant properties due to their bioactive content, showing beneficial effects on human health.

Interest in natural antioxidants in plants around the world is increasing day by day, with the widespread use of natural additives in the food industry. Therefore, herbs and spices have become the most important focus of research for the study of natural antioxidants.

Since ancient times, herbs and spices have been used in alternative medical treatments due to their antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects. Although the use of herbs and spices in food and treatment has been available for a long time, research on this subject is limited to the recent past.

In addition to the poor antioxidant features of animal origin foods, the antioxidant power of plant-based foods is much higher. There are over 1. Although they are very small in terms of weight and volume, they have a feature of increasing the value and antioxidant content of foods.

Thanks to the studies conducted on this subject, the application strategies of phytochemical antioxidants in the diet can be determined, and chronic diseases related to oxidative stress such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, inflammation and diabetes can be prevented or their effects can be reduced.

Various synthetic and natural products are used in the food industry to cope with dietary oxidative stress.

Hence, there is a need for optimized studies of natural antioxidant products that can be used as food preservatives in the food industry. The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest, and there have been no sources of funding.

Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Edited by Viduranga Y. Open access peer-reviewed chapter Use of Selected Antioxidant-Rich Spices and Herbs in Foods Written By Perçin Karakol and Emin Kapi.

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Chapter metrics overview Chapter Downloads View Full Metrics. Impact of this chapter. Abstract Free radicals are chemicals that play a role in the etiopathogenesis of ischemia—reperfusion injury. Keywords antioxidant food herb plant review spice supplement.

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Because many of us are exposed to such high rates of oxidative stress from a young age, we need the power of antioxidants more than ever, which means we need to consume antioxidant foods.

What is an antioxidant, and why is it important? While there are many ways to describe what antioxidants do inside the body, one antioxidant definition is any substance that inhibits oxidation, especially one used to counteract the deterioration of stored food products or remove potentially damaging oxidizing agents in a living organism.

Antioxidants include dozens of food-based substances you may have heard of before, such as carotenoids like beta-carotene, lycopene and vitamin C. Antioxidants also help neutralize harmful free radicals to prevent the potential negative effects on health.

Free radicals accumulate in the body due to oxidative stress, which can be caused by a number of different factors, including diet and lifestyle. Over time, free radicals can cause cell damage and contribute to the development of chronic disease.

Why are antioxidants good for you? Research suggests that when it comes to longevity and overall health, some of the benefits of consuming antioxidant foods, herbs, teas and supplements include:.

There are many different types of antioxidants, including several antioxidant vitamins, minerals and polyphenols. Most whole foods include a mix of the best antioxidants, making it easy to maximize the potential health benefits and fit a range of vitamins for the immune system into your diet.

Along with other compounds on the list of antioxidants, vitamin C antioxidants are highly effective at neutralizing free radicals to protect against disease. Other vitamins and minerals that have powerful antioxidant properties include vitamin A, vitamin E, manganese and selenium.

Other antioxidants include lycopene, carotenoids, lutein, zeaxanthin, anthocyanins , quercetin, glutathione and flavonoids like rutin. As described above, the single most important benefit of antioxidants is counteracting free radicals found inside every human body, which are very destructive to things like tissue and cells.

Free radicals are responsible for contributing to many health issues and have connections to such diseases as cancer and premature aging of the skin or eyes. The body uses antioxidants to prevent itself from the damage caused by oxygen.

Electrons exist in pairs; free radicals are missing an electron. This is their weapon of sorts. Free radicals then damage DNA, cellular membranes and enzymes.

Many foods that provide these nutrients also supply antioxidants called lutein and zeaxanthin, nicknamed the eye vitamins , found in brightly colored foods like fruits and vegetables — especially leafy greens and types that are deep orange or yellow.

These antioxidants are believed to be easily transported around the body, especially to the delicate parts of the eyes called the macula and the lens.

In fact, there are more than different types of carotenoids found in nature, but only about 20 make their way into the eyes.

Of those 20, lutein and zeaxanthin are the only two macular carotenoids that are deposited in high quantities into the macular portion of the eyes, which is one of the earliest to be damaged during aging.

Research shows that high-lutein sources like spinach are proven to help decrease eye-related degeneration and improve visual acuity.

Similarly, flavonoid antioxidants found in berries, such as bilberries or grapes also great sources of the antioxidant resveratrol , may be especially beneficial at supporting vision into older age.

Perhaps most noticeably, free radicals speed up the aging process when it comes to the appearance and health of your skin. Using antioxidants for skin may help combat this damage, especially from eating sources high in vitamin C, beta-carotene and other antioxidants.

Vitamin A and C have been connected to a decrease in the appearance of wrinkles and skin dryness. Vitamin C, specifically, is a powerful antioxidant that can help reduce the effect of oxidative damage caused by pollution, stress or poor diet.

Vitamin A deficiency has also been linked to skin dryness, scaling and follicular thickening of the skin. Similarly to how free radicals damage surface skin cells, keratinization of the skin, when the epithelial cells lose their moisture and become hard and dry, can occur in the mucous membranes of the respiratory, gastrointestinal tract and urinary tract.

At this point, the data does not show that all antioxidants are effective in protecting against heart disease, but some, such as vitamin C, do seem to be. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition featured a study that found those with high levels of vitamin C in their blood had almost a 50 percent decreased risk of stroke.

Countless studies also have found that people who consume highly plant-based diets — loaded with things like fresh veggies, herbs, spices and fruit — have a better chance of living longer and healthier lives with less heart disease.

Some research has unearthed a potential connection between antioxidants and cancer. In fact, studies have found that high intakes of vitamin A, vitamin C and other antioxidant foods could help prevent or treat several forms of cancer thanks to their ability to control malignant cells in the body and cause cell cycle arrest and apoptosis destruction of cancer cells.

Retinoic acid, derived from vitamin A, is one chemical that plays important roles in cell development and differentiation, as well as cancer treatment. Lung, prostate, breast, ovarian, bladder, oral and skin cancers have been demonstrated to be suppressed by retinoic acid. Another study collected numerous references demonstrating the findings of retinoic acid in protection against melanoma, hepatoma, lung cancer, breast cancer and prostate cancer.

Many studies have found that people eating plant-based diets high in antioxidants, such as the Mediterranean diet , have better protection over cognition. In addition to improving heart health and cognitive function, some research suggests that antioxidants could aid in the prevention of type 2 diabetes.

For example, one animal model out of Japan showed that administering antioxidants to mice helped preserve the function of beta cells in the pancreas, which are responsible for the production of insulin.

Another large review of 12 studies found that vitamin E helped reduce blood sugar levels, while vitamin C was effective at decreasing levels of oxidative stress. Antioxidants may be easier to add to your diet than you might think. Based on ORAC scores provided by Superfoodly based on research from a broad number of sources , below are some of the top antioxidant foods by weight:.

The ORAC scores above are based on weight. This means that it might not be practical to eat high amounts of all of these antioxidant foods. Other high-antioxidant foods not listed above, which are still great sources and highly beneficial, include common foods like:.

Try to consume at least three to four servings daily of these antioxidant-rich foods even more is better for optimal health. Along with antioxidant foods, certain herbs, spices and essential oils derived from nutrient-dense plants are extremely high in healing antioxidant compounds.

Here is another list of the herbs you can try adding to your diet for increased protection against disease. Look for percent pure therapeutic grade oils, which are highest in antioxidants:. Other antioxidant-rich herbs include garlic, cayenne pepper and green tea.

Aim to consume two to three servings of these herbs or herbal teas daily. The American Heart Association, Mayo Clinic and Cleveland Clinic recommend getting antioxidants from whole foods and a wide variety of sources.

Did you know spices and dried herbs provide the most antioxidants out of all the foods on our entire planet? Although we typically use minimal amounts in our cooking, they can make all the difference in the overall nutrition of our dishes!

For example, just 1 tsp. Some nutrients with antioxidant properties are vitamin C, E, and A, for example. One of the biggest benefits of these nutrients for our health is that they can fight free radicals, which can sometimes cause oxidative stress and lead to a number of chronic diseases.

Not only is this an excellent way to fight off free radicals, but also to get enough fiber and other micronutrients. This is the measurement of the antioxidant content in different foods, which was originally developed at the National Institute of Health NIH.

You can find the entire ranking for all foods tested here. Keep reading and find out which spices have the most antioxidants! Shocker, right? However, it is in fact the lowest on our list.

Use this spice in curries, turmeric lattes, smoothies, and tofu scrambles! We like to use it in oatmeal, lattes, and all of our seasonal desserts. Thyme is a great herb to add to tomato sauce and beans, and is perfect in any vegetable soup.

Other meal ideas that pair well with this high-antioxidant herb are mashed potatoes, lentil meatballs, veggie burgers, and even marmalades! Peppermint should not be reserved just for Winter treats and beverages!

Antioxidants are found in variable amounts in the hundreds of herbs and spices that exist in the plant kingdom.

Clove What is it? Native to the islands of Indonesia, clove is derived from the dried flower buds of the evergreen clove tree. Clove lends its distinctively strong flavor and aroma to ketchup and Worcestershire sauce preparations and historically has been used as a natural numbing agent.

What does it contain? Dried clove is rich in polyphenolic compounds, a large class of plant-based compounds thought to impart antioxidant properties. In , scientists at Miguel Hernández University in Spain reported that clove ranks highest as a natural antioxidant due to its phenol content and demonstrated ability to inhibit several damaging oxidative processes.

How can clients use it? Due to its pungent aroma, many clients may be unsure how to subtly incorporate clove in cooking. But according to Sheth, clients can use ground clove wherever they add cinnamon or ginger. For example, stir ground clove into applesauce, stewed pears, or oatmeal.

Clove is also a pleasant addition to muffins, cookies, whole grain pancakes, and sweet breads. Oregano What is it? Within its green, oval-shaped leaves, oregano is rich in phytochemicals such as thymol and rosmarinic acid, along with humalogs from the antioxidant vitamin E.

Studies have shown oregano to have the highest total antioxidant capacity and phenolic content when compared with thyme, sage, rosemary, mint, and sweet basil. In addition, oregano may increase brain antioxidant activity and total antioxidant status.

With a little creative thinking, clients can use oregano for far more than pizza and spaghetti sauce. Sheth recommends a sprinkle of oregano to enliven sandwiches eg, grilled cheese as well as casseroles and salad dressings.

Want a unique twist on scrambled eggs? Instead of adding cheese, mix in some vegetables such as mushrooms and Swiss chard with a healthful dash of oregano.

Ginger What is it? Dried, ground ginger comes from the root of the perennial herb Zingiber officinale. After the plant reaches its 2- to 4-ft growth potential, the leaves die and the thick roots are dug up for consumption. Ginger contains several compounds that are thought to provide health benefits.

Among them is gingerol, a relative of capsaicin found in chili peppers, which lends the root its characteristic spiciness. Historically, ginger has been used to treat everything from the common cold to motion sickness and gastrointestinal ailments.

Cell cultures and animal studies show that ginger may protect tissues and organs against oxidative damage and prevent cancer development and growth. Suggest clients consider ground ginger when they want to add a gentle spice to their foods.

Sheth recommends clients add it to fruit smoothies, cereals, or yogurt and sprinkle it on toast to make a quick and easy gingerbread toast. Ground ginger instantly adds an Asian flair to sautéed vegetables, salad dressings, and marinades.

Encourage clients to sprinkle ground ginger on sweet potatoes for an antioxidant-packed side dish. Cinnamon What is it? Cinnamon, considered one of the first known spices, is the dried inner bark of various evergreen trees within the genus Cinnamomum.

When harvested, the tree bark is stripped and allowed to dry in the sun where it forms its characteristic curls known as quills. Antioxidant components of cinnamon, such as cinnamaldehyde, identified in cell cultures and animal studies, suggest cinnamon may act as an antioxidant in humans.

A recent study comparing the antioxidant potential of several plants, including cinnamon, spinach, chard, Jerusalem artichoke, and red cabbage, found that extracts of cinnamon had the most potent antioxidant effects.

Cinnamon is incredibly versatile, says Atlanta-based dietitian Marisa Moore, MBA, RD, LD. When counseling clients who prefer something sweet, Moore recommends using cinnamon for extra flavor and a sense of sweetness without adding actual sugar.

Moore says cinnamon is an excellent addition to savory dishes as well, such as quinoa, whole wheat couscous, or barley salad. Turmeric What is it? Like ginger, dried turmeric originates from the root of the plant Curcuma longa.

Noted for its bright yellow color, turmeric gives curry powder its distinctive hue and is used to add color and flavor to prepared mustard, pickles, relish, chutneys, and rice dishes. Historical Uses of Herbs and Spices The use of herbs and spices for medicinal, culinary, and other functional purposes has persisted through multiple centuries and in regions around the world.

Fragrant herbs and spices such as cinnamon, anise, and cumin often were integral ingredients in the embalming process. The Romans considered the scent of cinnamon sacred and, therefore, burned it at funeral ceremonies.

Chinese courtiers of the third century BC are said to have carried cloves in their mouths to ensure sweet-smelling breath when they addressed the emperor. India boasts a long history of using spices like cardamom and turmeric to alleviate numerous conditions such as urinary tract ailments and jaundice.

Ayurvedic wisdom suggests chewing clove and cardamom after meals to increase the flow of saliva and enhance digestion. These are just a handful of examples of the versatile uses of herbs and spices throughout history. Reducing Deadly Carcinogens and Disease Risk Today herbs and spices are perhaps best known for their unique aromas and flavors they impart to food.

Researchers are just beginning to understand their potential as disease-fighting sources of antioxidants, yet the available studies on the subject are intriguing.

One particular hot topic on the research forefront is the role herbs and spices may play in reducing the formation of harmful carcinogens formed when cooking meat. For example, in the May issue of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , Zhaoping and colleagues reported that adding a polyphenol-rich spice mixture notably containing rosmarinic acid from oregano to hamburger meat before cooking reduced the formation and absorption of malondialdehyde, a naturally occurring by-product of lipid peroxidation thought to cause changes to DNA and promote cancer.

A similar study by Smith and colleagues of Kansas State University, published in the issue of the Journal of Food Science, drew parallel conclusions regarding the power of antioxidant herbs and spices to reduce harmful meat by-products. The findings suggested that commonly available, spice-containing marinades can be effective inhibitors of heterocyclic amine HCA formation and lessen exposure to some of the carcinogens formed during grilling.

The National Cancer Institute NCI defines HCAs as chemicals formed when muscle meat, such as beef, pork, poultry, and even fish, is cooked using high-temperature methods such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame.

More specifically, HCAs are formed when amino acids, sugars, and creatinine react at high temperatures. The potential for antioxidant herbs and spices to reduce or prevent the formation of HCAs during the cooking of meat at high temperatures is important because epidemiologic studies have found that high consumption of well-done, fried, or barbecued meats, which are the only foods that contain significant amounts of HCAs, is associated with a higher risk of cancer of the colon, pancreas, and prostate.

The power of antioxidant herbs and spices to inhibit the formation of HCAs during the cooking of meat was further demonstrated by the Puangsombat and Smith study reported in the March issue of the Journal of Food Science , showing that constituents of rosemary extract—rosmarinic acid, camasol, and carnosic acid—may behave synergistically to inhibit the formation of HCAs.

The same researchers later supplemented their previous studies involving rosemary and analyzed HCA formation in the presence of five Asian spices: turmeric, cumin, coriander, and lesser-known galangal and fingerrot. The HCA levels in fried beef patties containing the Asian spices were compared with fried beef patties containing rosemary.

Puangsombat and colleagues reported in the October issue of the Journal of Food Science that all five of the Asian spices significantly decreased HCA formation; however, only turmeric and fingerroot were found to be as effective as rosemary in reducing its development. In addition to inhibiting the formation of potentially carcinogenic by-products, antioxidant herbs and spices may prove beneficial in the prevention and treatment of other diseases.

Extracts of cinnamon and clove have been shown to potentially treat diseases such as hyperlipidemia and diabetes, according to an animal study by Jin and Cho published in the July issue of Food and Chemical Toxocology. When compared with ground pepper, rosemary, and ginger, the spices cinnamon and clove demonstrated the strongest antiglycation and antioxidant activity as well as the strongest inhibition of activity against LDL oxidation.

Participants had the lowest increase in body weight and the strongest antioxidant activity following five weeks on a high-cholesterol diet. These findings suggest constituents of cinnamon and clove may lower the risk of developing atherosclerosis and diabetes.

Bioavailability of Antioxidants Determining the level of antioxidants various herbs and spices contain, as well as how well our bodies absorb these antioxidants during digestion, is yet another area of ongoing scientific investigation.

Daly and colleagues addressed this subject in the June issue of Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. Their study analyzed the content of carotenoids—naturally occurring plant pigments with antioxidant properties, such as beta-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthin, and lutein and zeaxanthin—in the herbs basil, coriander, dill, mint, parsley, rosemary, sage, and tarragon.

Daly and colleagues also studied the bioavailability of the carotenoids in these herbs, which they defined as the amount of carotenoids transferred to micelles after digestion when compared with the original amount present in the food. Basil and coriander contained the highest levels of the carotenoids beta-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin as well as lutein and zeaxanthin.

Counseling Patients Armed with the latest research on antioxidants in foods and herbs and spices, dietitians will want to encourage clients to boost their intake of these disease-fighting nutrients. The following strategies can help. RDs should continue to encourage patients to consume antioxidant-rich foods, including fresh fruits, vegetables, herbs, spices, berries, and whole grains, as part of a healthful diet.

However, further scientific research is needed for RDs to make clinical recommendations to patients regarding the protective health effects of specific herbs and spices related to disease prevention. Whatever you like, the key is to consume a variety, just as we recommend with fruits and vegetables.

While dietitians may not have ample evidence to recommend herbs and spices to provide specific health benefits, they can recommend them as healthful substitutions for ingredients such as salt, fat, and sugar. Experts agree that seasoning food with herbs and spices not only enhances the flavor and aroma of food but also prevents negative health risks.

Moore encourages dietitians to become familiar with the culinary uses and antioxidant content of various herbs and spices, as this is an area of opportunity for them to educate patients. But for the convenience factor, dried herbs and spices are perfectly fine.

Oregano displayed the highest antioxidant content of all the herbs tested in both dry and fresh forms. The researchers concluded that processed herbs contribute significant amounts of antioxidant compounds to the diet. The use of the antioxidant-rich herbs and spices discussed in this article is an accessible and convenient strategy for patients to achieve such an increase in their daily diets.

Learning Objectives After participating in this continuing education activity, nutrition professionals should be able to:. Examine the mechanism by which antioxidants are believed to protect the body from free radical damage.

Provide guidance to clients regarding the use of antioxidant-rich herbs and spices in cooking.